This book is a professional book that introduces semiconductor integrated circuit and device manufacturing technology, and enjoys a high reputation in the semiconductor field. The scope of this book includes every stage of the semiconductor process: from the preparation of raw materials to packaging, testing and finished product transportation, as well as traditional and modern processes. The book provides detailed illustrations and examples, and each chapter contains a review summary and exercises, supplemented by a rich glossary. The sixth edition revised the new progress in the field of microchip manufacturing, discussed the advanced processes and cutting-edge technologies used for patterning, doping and thin film steps, and made the basic knowledge of physics, chemistry and electronics implicit in the complex modern semiconductor manufacturing materials and processes easier to understand. [1] The main feature of this book is that it avoids complex mathematical problems to introduce process technology content; it adds new achievements in the semiconductor industry, which can enable readers to understand the development trend of process technology. 1 The Semiconductor Industry 1 Introduction 1 Birth of an Industry 1 The Solid-State Era 3 Integrated Circuits (ICs) 4 Process and Product Trends 5 Moore\'s Law 6 Decreasing Feature Size 6 Increasing Chip and Wafer Size 8 Reduction in Defect Density 9 Increase in Interconnection Levels 10 The Semiconductor Industry Association Roadmap 10 Chip Cost 11 Industry Organization 11 Stages of Manufacturing 12 Six Decade s of Advances in Microchip Fabrication Processes 14 The Nano Era 16 Review Topics 17 References 17 2 Properties of Semiconductor Materials and Chemicals 19 Introduction 19 Atomic Structure 19 [1] The Bohr Atom 19 The Periodic Table of the Elements 20 Electrical Conduction 23 Conductors 23 Dielectrics and Capacitors 23 Resistors 24 Intrinsic Semiconductors 24 Do ped Semiconductors 25 Electron and Hole Conduction 26 Carrier Mobility 28 Semiconductor Production Materials 29 Germanium and Silicon 29 Semiconducting Compounds 29 Silicon Germanium 31 Engineered Substrates 31 Ferroelectric Materials 31 Diamond Semiconductors 32 Process Chemicals 32 Molecules, Compounds, and Mixtures 32 [1] Ions 33 States of Matter 34 Solids, Liquids, and Gases 3 4 Plasma State 34 Properties of Matter 34 Temperature 34 Density, Specic Gravity, and Vapor Density 35 Pressure and Vacuum 36 Acids, Alkalis, and Solvents 37 Acids and Alkalis 37 Solvents 38 Chemical Purity and Cleanliness 38 Safety Issues 38 The Material Safety Data Sheet 39 Review Topics 39 References 39 3 Crystal Growth and Silicon Wafer Preparation 41 Introduction 41 Semiconductor Silicon Preparation 41 Silicon Wafer Preparation Stages 42 Crystalline Materials 42 Unit Cells 43 Poly and Single Crystals 43 Crystal Orientation 44 Crystal Growth 45 [1] Czochralski Method 45 Liquid-Encapsulated Czochralski 47 Float Zone 47 Crystal and Wafer Quality 49 Point Defects 49 Dislocations 50 Growth Defects 50 Wafer Prepar ation 51 End Cropping 51 Diameter Grinding 51 Crystal Orientation, Conductivity,and Resistivity Check 51 Grinding Orientation Indicators 52 Wafer Slicing 53 Wafer Marking 54 Rough Polish 54 Chemical Mechanical Polishing 55 Backside Processing 55 Double-Sided Polishing 56 Edge Grinding and Polishing 56 Wafer Evaluation 56 Oxidation 57 Packaging 57 Wafer Types and Uses 57 Reclaim Wafers 57 Engineered Wafers (Substrates) 57 Review Topics 58 References 58 [1] 4 Overview of Wafer Fabrication and Packaging 59 Introduction 59 Goal of Wafer Fabrication 59 Wafer Terminology 59 Chip Terminology 61 Basic Wafer-Fabrication Operations 63 Layering 63 Patterning 64 Circuit Design 66 Reticle and Masks 68 Doping 69 Heat Treatments 69 Example Fabrication Process 72 Wafer Sort 74 Packaging 75 Summary 75 Review Topics 76 References 76 [1] 5 Contamination Control 77 Introduction 77 The Problem 77 Contamination-Caused Problems 80 Contamination Sources 81 General Sources 81 Air 81 Clean Air Strategies 82 Cleanroom Workstation Strategy 83 Tunnel or Bay Concept 85 Micro- and Mini -Environments 86 Temperature, Humidity,and Smog 87 Cleanroom Construction 88 Construction Materials 88 [1] Cleanroom Elements 89 Personnel-Generated Contamination 93 Process Water 94 Process Chemicals 96 Equipment 99 Cleanroom Materials and Supplies 99 Cleanroom Maintenance 100 Wafer-Surface Cleaning 100 Particulate Removal 102 Wafer Scrubbers 102 High-Pressure Water Cleaning 103 Organic Residues 103 Inorganic Residues 103 Chemical-Cleaning Solutions 104 General Chemical Cleaning 104 Oxide Layer Removal 105 [1] Room Temperature and Ozonated Chemistries 106 Water Rinsing 108 Drying Techniques 110 Contamination Detection 112 Review Topics 112 References 113 6 Productivity and Process Yi elds 115 Overview 115 Yield Measurement Points 115 Accumulative Wafer-Fabrication Yield 116 Wafer-Fabrication Yield Limiters 117 Number of Process Steps 118 Wafer Breakage and Warping 118 Process Variation 119 Mask Defects 120 Wafer-Sort Yield Factors 120 Wafer Diameter and Edge Die 121 Wafer Diameter and Die Size 122 Wafer Diameter and Crystal Defects 122 Wafer Diameter and Process Variations 123 Die Area and Defect Density 124 Circuit Density and Defect Density 125 Number of Process Steps 125 Feature Size and Defect Size 125 Process Cycle Time 125 Wafer-Sort Yield Formulas 125 Assembly and Final Test Yields 128 Overall Process Yields 128 Review Topics 129 References 130 7 Oxidation 131 Introduction 131 Silicon Dioxide Layer Uses 131 Surface Passivation 131 Doping Barrier 132 [1] Surface Dielectric 132 Device Dielectric (MOS Gates) 133 Device Oxide Thicknesses 134 Thermal Oxidation Mechanisms 134 Influences on the Oxidation Rate 137 Thermal Oxidation Methods 140 Horizontal Tube Furnaces 140 Temperature Control System 141 Source Cabinet 143 Vertical Tube Furnaces 143 Rapid Thermal Processing 146 High-Pressure Oxidation 149 Oxidant Sources 151 Oxidation Processes 154 Preoxidation Wafer Cleaning 154 Postoxidation Evaluation 155 Surface Inspection 156 Oxide Thickness 156 Oxide and Furnace Cleanliness 156 [1] Thermal Nitridation 156 Review Topics 157 References 157 8 The Ten-Step Patterning Process—Surface Preparation to Exposure 161 Introduction 161 Overview of the Photomasking Process 162 Ten-Step Process 165 Basic Photoresist Chemistry 167 Photoresist 167 Photoresist Performance Factors 169 Resolution Capability 169 Adhesion Capability 170 Process Latitude 171 Pinholes 172 Particle and Contamination Levels 173 Step Coverage 173 [1] Thermal Flow 173 Comparison of Positive and Negative Resists 173 Physical Properties of Photoresists 175 Solids Content 175 Viscosity 175 Surface Tension 176 Index of Refraction 176 Storage and Control of Photoresists 176 Light and Heat Sensitivity 176 Viscosity Sensitivity 177 Shelf Life 177 Cleanliness 177 Photomasking Processes—Surface Preparation to Exposure 178 Surface Preparation 178 Particle Removal 178 Dehydration Baking 178 Wafer Priming 179 Spin Priming 180 Vapor Priming 180 Photoresist Application (Spinning) 181 The Static Dispense Spin Process 181 Dynamic Dispense183 Moving-Arm Dispensing 183 Manual Spinners 183 Automatic Spinners 184 Edge Bead Removal 185 Backside Coating 185 [1] Soft Bake 185 Convection Ovens 186 Manual Hot Plates 187 In-Line,Single-Wafer Hot Plates 187 Moving-Belt Hot Plates 187 Moving-Belt Infrared Ovens 188 Microwave Baking 188 Vacuum Baking 188 Alignment and Exposure 189 Alignment and Exposure Systems 189 Exposure Sources 191 Alignment Criteria 191 Aligner Types 193 Postexposure Bake 196 Advanced Lithography 198 [ 1 ] Review Topics 198 References 198 9 The Ten-Step Patterning Process—Developing to Final Inspection 201 Introduction 201 Development 201 Positive Resist Development 201 Negative Resist Development 203 Wet Development Processes 203 Dry (or Plasma) Development 206 Hard Bake 207 Hard-Bake Methods 207 Hard-Bake Process 207 Develop Inspect 208 Develop Inspect Reject Categories 209 Develop Inspect Methods 209 Causes for Rejecting at the Develop Inspection Stage 211 Etch 212 Wet Etching 212 [1] Etch Goals and Issues 212 Incomplete Etch 212 Overetch and Undercutting 213 Selectivity 214 Wet-Spray Etching 214 Silicon Wet Etching 214 Silicon Dioxide Wet Etching 215 [1] Aluminum-Film Wet Etching 216 Deposited-Oxide Wet Etching 216 Silicon Nitride Wet Etching 216 Vapor Etching 217 Dry Etch 217 Plasma Etching 218 Etch Rate 220 Radiation Damage 220 Selectivity 220 Ion-Beam Etching 222 Reactive Ion Etching 2 22 Resist Effects in Dry Etching 223 Resist Stripping 223 Wet Chemical Stripping of Nonmetallized Surfaces 224 Wet Chemical Stripping of Metallized Surfaces 225 Dry Stripping 225 [1] Post–Ion Implant and Plasma Etch Stripping 226 New Stripping Challenges 226 Final Inspection 227 Mask Making 227 Summary 229 Review Topics 229 References 230 10 Next Generation Lithography 233 Introduction 233 Challenges of Next Generation Lithography 233 High-Pressure Mercury Lamp Sources 235 Excimer Lasers 236 Extreme Ultraviolet 236 X-Rays 237 Electron Beam or Direct Writing 238 Numerical Aperture of a Lens 240 Other Exposure Issues 241 Variable Numerical Aperture Lenses 242 Immersion Exposure System 242 [1] Amplified Resist 242 Contrast Effects 243 Other Resolution Challenges and Solutions 244 Off-Axis Illumination 245 Lens Issues and Reection Systems 245 Phase-Shift Masks 245 Optical Proximity Corrected or Optical Process Correction 245 Annular-Ring Illumination 246 Pellicles 247 Surface Problems 248 Resist Light Scattering 248 Subsurface Reectivity 248 Antireective Coatings 249 Standing Waves 249 Planarization 251 [1] Photoresist Process Advances 252 Multilayer Resist or Surface Imaging 252 Silylation or DESIRE Process 254 Polyimide Planarization Layers 255 Etchback Planarization 256 Dual-Damascene Process 256 Chemical Mechanical Polishing 256 Slurry 259 Polishing Rates 259 Planarity 260 Post-CMP Clean 261 CMP Tools 261 CMP Summary 262 Reow 262 Image Reversal 262 Contrast Enhancement Layers 262 Dyed Resists 264 Improving Etch Denition 264 Lift-Off Process 264 Self-Aligned Structures 264 Etch Prole Control 266 Reviews Topics 266 References 266 11 Doping 269 Introduction 269 The Diffusion Concept 269 Formation of a Doped Region and Junction 271 The NP Junction 272 Doping ProcessGoals 273 [1] Graphical Representation of Junctions 273 Concentration versus Depth Graphs 273 Lateral Diffusion 273 Same-Type Doping 275 Diffusion Process Steps 275 Deposition 275 Dopant Sources 278 Drive-In Oxidation 280 Oxidation Effects 281 Introduction to Ion Implantation 281 Concept of Ion Implantation 283 Ion-Implantation System 284 Implant Species Sources 284 Ionization Chamber 284 Mass Analyzing or Ion Selection 284 Acceleration Tube 286 Wafer Charging 286 Beam Focus 287 Neutral Beam Trap 287 Beam Scanning 287 End Station and Target Chamber 289 [1] Ion-Implant Masks 290 Dopant Concentration in Implanted Regions 291 Crystal Damage 292 Annealing and Dopant Activation 292 Channeling 293 Evaluation of Implanted Layers 294 Uses of Ion Implantation 295 The Future of Doping 297 Review Topics 297 References 298 12 Layer Deposition 299 Introduction 299 Film Parameters 301 Chemical Vapor Deposition Basics 302 Basic CVD System Components 303 CVD Process Steps 305 CVD System Types 305 Atmospheric-Pressure CVD Systems 306 Horizontal-Tube Induction-Heated APCVD 306 Barrel Radiant-Induction-Heated APCVD 307 Pancake Induction-Heated APCVD 307 Continuous Conduction-Heated APCVD 308 Horizontal Conduction-Heated APCVD 309 Low- Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition 309 Horizontal Conduction-Convection-Heated LPCVD 309 Ultra-High Vacuum CVD 310 Plasma-Enhanced CVD (PECVD) 310 High-Density Plasma CVD 312 Atomic Layer Deposition 313 Vapor-Phase Epitaxy 315 Molecular Beam Epitaxy 315 Metalorganic CVD 317 Deposited Films 318 Deposited Semiconductors 318313 Vapor-Phase Epitaxy 315 Molecular Beam Epitaxy 315 Metalorganic CVD 317 Deposited Films 318 Deposited Semiconductors 318313 Vapor-Phase Epitaxy 315 Molecular Beam Epitaxy 315 Metalorganic CVD 317 Deposited Films 318 Deposited Semiconductors 318
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