For nearly 20 years, the standard VDD for digital circuits has been 5V. This level was used because bipolar transistor technology required 5V to provide the margin needed for normal operation. However, in the late 1980s, complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) became the standard for digital IC design. Although this process does not necessarily require the same levels as TTL circuits, the industry still uses the logic threshold levels of the 5VTTL standard to maintain compatibility with older systems (Reference 1). Today, the demand for faster, smaller, and lower-cost products is driving a revolutionary trend to reduce supply voltages. This demand has driven silicon size reductions from 2μm in the early 1980s to 0.90nm and 45nm, which are widely used in today\'s latest FPGA, microprocessor, and DSP designs. As device size continues to shrink, the voltage required to achieve optimal device performance has also dropped below 5V. This is reflected in today\'s FPGAs, microprocessors, and DSPs, whose optimal core operating voltage is as low as 1V or less. The strong interest in low-voltage DSPs is clearly reflected in the sales of 5V and 3.3V devices. Sales of 3.3V DSPs are growing more than twice as fast as all other devices in the DSP market (30% for all DSP devices, over 70% for 3.3V devices). This trend will continue as the demand for signal processors with all the features of low-voltage DSPs continues to grow rapidly in the high-volume/high-growth portable market. On the one hand, low-voltage ICs operate in low-power modes, which helps reduce chip area and increase speed. On the other hand, low-voltage ICs must interface with other ICs that operate at a higher VDD supply voltage, which can cause interface compatibility issues. Although lower operating voltage means smaller signal swings, less switching noise, and thus lower noise margins for low-supply voltage ICs. The popularity of 2.5V devices is partly due to their ability to operate from two AA alkaline batteries. Figure 1 shows the typical discharge characteristics of AA batteries under various load conditions (Reference 2). Note that at a load current of 15mA, the voltage can be maintained above +1.25V (2.5V for two series cells) for nearly 100 hours. Therefore, an IC that can operate efficiently with low power at a supply voltage of 2.5V ±10% (2.25V-2.75V) is very useful in portable designs.
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